Why Do We Eat? A Neurobiological Perspective. Part III

In the first post, I explained that all voluntary actions are driven by a central action selection system in the mesolimbic area (the reward system).  This is the part of you that makes the decision to act, or not to act.  This system determines your overall motivation to obtain food, based on a variety of internal and external factors, for example hunger, the effort required to obtain food, and the sensory qualities of food/drink.  These factors are recognized and processed by a number of specialized 'modules' in the brain, and forwarded to the reward system where the decision to eat, or not to eat, is made.  Researchers divide food intake into two categories: 1) eating from a true energy need by the body (homeostatic eating), e.g. hunger, and 2) eating for other reasons (non-homeostatic eating), e.g. eating for social reasons or because the food tastes really good.

In the second post of the series, we explored how the brain regulates food intake on a meal-to meal basis based on feedback from the digestive system, and how food properties can influence this process.  The integrated gut-brain system that accomplishes this can be called the satiety system.

In this post, we'll explore the energy homeostasis system, which regulates energy balance (energy in vs. energy out) and body fatness on a long term basis.

The Energy Homeostasis System

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Why Do We Eat? A Neurobiological Perspective. Part II

In the last post, I explained that eating behavior is determined by a variety of factors, including hunger and a number of others that I'll gradually explore as we make our way through the series.  These factors are recognized by specialized brain 'modules' and forwarded to a central action selection system in the mesolimbic area (the reward system), which determines if they are collectively sufficient cause for action.  If so, they're forwarded to brain systems that directly drive the physical movements involved in seeking and consuming food (motor systems).

The term 'homeostasis' is important in biology.  Homeostasis is a process that attempts to keep a particular factor within a certain stable range.  The thermostat in your house is an example of a homeostatic system.  It reacts to upward or downward changes in a manner that keeps temperature in a comfortable range.  The human body also contains a thermostat that keeps internal temperature close to 98.6 F.  Many things are homeostatically regulated by the body, and one of them is energy status (how much energy the body has available for use).  Homeostasis of large-scale processes in the body is typically regulated by the brain.

We can divide the factors that determine feeding behavior into two categories, homeostatic and non-homeostatic.  Homeostatic eating is when food intake is driven by a true energy need, as perceived by the brain.  For the most part, this is eating in response to hunger.  Non-homeostatic eating is when food intake is driven by factors other than energy need, such as palatability, habitual meal time, and food cues (e.g. you just walked by a vending machine full of Flamin' Hot Cheetos).

We can divide energy homeostasis into two sub-categories: 1) the system that regulates short-term, meal-to-meal calorie intake, and 2) the system that regulates fat mass, the long-term energy reserve of the human body.  In this post, I'll give an overview of the process that regulates energy homeostasis on a short-term, meal-to-meal basis.

The Satiety System (Short-Term Energy Homeostasis)


The stomach of an adult human has a capacity of 2-4 liters.  In practice, people rarely eat that volume of food.  In fact, most of us feel completely stuffed long before we've reached full stomach capacity.  Why?

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Why Do We Eat? A Neurobiological Perspective. Part I

As with all voluntary movements, eating food is an expression of activity in the brain.  The brain integrates various inputs from around the body, and outside the body, and decides whether or not to execute the goal-directed behaviors of food seeking and consumption.  Research has uncovered a lot about how this process works, and in this series I'll give a simplified overview of what scientists have learned about how, and why, the brain decides to eat.

The Gatekeeper of Voluntary Behaviors

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Comment Policy

The nature of the Internet is that comments sections are rowdy places.  But ultimately I do have control over my corner of the world, and I intend to exert it to maintain a higher level of information quality and decorum.  Here are my criteria for deciding whether or not a comment will be published:

1. Value.  Comments should be well thought out, and points supported by research or at least solid logic.  Personal anecdotes are welcome as long as they aren't over-interpreted.  Thoughtful questions are also welcome, although I can't guarantee I'll answer them.  As always, anyone is free to disagree with me in a constructive manner, or simply offer a word of support.  
2. Respect.  Comments should be respectful to me and other commenters, and composed in a concise manner.  It isn't difficult to disagree in a respectful way.
3. On topic.  Comments should be at least somewhat relevant to the subject of the post.
4. Full name.  Attaching your full name to a comment means taking responsibility for what you write.  I'll continue to publish anonymous comments if they add value, but I'll be more likely to publish if you include your full name in your screen name, your profile, or at the bottom of your comment.
5. No ads.  I will not publish links to commercial sites that do not add value to the discussion, nor will I publish any other link I find objectionable.

Because I'll be moderating, I've decided to remove the captcha word authentication, which many people found difficult to use.  We'll see how that goes.  Since I have a lot on my plate, and Whole Health Source is a one-man show, I may not always moderate comments in a timely manner.  I apologize in advance for the inconvenience.  

Announcing the Ideal Weight Program

I often receive requests from people asking for my overall perspective on fat loss and health.  I share my opinions here, but they're scattered throughout hundreds of posts, there's a lot I haven't had a chance to write about, and I rarely give practical recommendations.  However, I knew I'd eventually put everything together into a cohesive fat loss program-- it was only a matter of finding the right opportunity.

That opportunity presented itself in 2011 when I met Dan Pardi, a researcher whose work focuses on sleep and food intake, and the CEO of a company called Dan's Plan.  I was immediately impressed by Dan because he stood out as someone with a high level of expertise in sleep and physical activity, as well as someone who has successfully lost a substantial amount of fat and kept it off for several years.

Dan and his team had developed a set of unique and engaging tools for tracking weight, sleep, and physical activity to help people maintain daily mindfulness over the simple fundamentals of health.  These tools are 100 percent free and incredibly easy to use, particularly if you sync them with an electronic scale and step counter.  When synced with these devices, the Dan's Plan website automatically uploads and displays your weight, sleep, and physical activity score, as well as integrating them all into a single user-friendly Health Zone Score that lets you know your overall performance at a glance.  Even if you have no interest in fat loss, I highly recommend using the free tracking tools on the Dan's Plan site-- I do.

In early 2012, Dan approached me about creating a fat loss program for Dan's Plan that incorporates their unique tracking tools.  This struck me as an excellent opportunity to create a diet and lifestyle program that combines sound science with exciting new technology.  Dan and I both brought science to the table, and Dan also brought the perspective gained from working with others to help them lose fat, as well as his own successful fat loss experience.  Dan and I have been working hard on this project, and we're finally ready to launch.

I'm happy to announce the Ideal Weight Program, an effective new system for fat loss and maintenance.

What is the Ideal Weight Program?

The Ideal Weight Program is a unique system for fat loss and maintenance that draws from the latest science on diet, physical activity, sleep, and behavior modification, and pairs it with engaging tools that help you define your goals and meet them.  It keeps you consistently focused on the everyday factors that really matter for fat loss, and gives you the skills you need to make sustainable diet and lifestyle changes.  Based on your own goals and priorities, you can choose one of two diet strategies for the initial fat loss phase:

• The Fat Loss and Sustainable Health (FLASH) diet, an intensive high-protein diet for rapid fat loss.
• The Simple Food Diet, a more flexible diet based on whole, natural foods specifically selected for fat loss.  One important goal of this diet is to teach healthy cooking skills, using recipes and tips provided.

These diets are designed to naturally promote a lower calorie intake and fat loss, without requiring calorie counting.  The Ideal Weight Program also includes important physical activity and sleep components, and explains why these are so critical for fat loss and health.  Dan and I discussed some of the principles underlying the Ideal Weight Program on Chris Kresser's podcast recently.

Here's what you get when you sign up:

• Detailed documents that walk you through the program
• Weight, sleep, and physical activity tracking tools tailored for fat loss
• Simple recipes and cooking tips that work with almost anything in your fridge
• Videos that explain the key concepts behind fat loss and maintenance
• An e-book explaining the scientific rationale behind the program

Signing up for the Ideal Weight Program gives you lifetime access to everything.  We've discounted the initial price, because we want to hear your feedback so that we can continue to improve the program over time.  If you follow the link below, first you'll be prompted to sign up for a basic Dan's Plan account, and once you have your account set up, you'll be able to purchase the Ideal Weight Program:

Ideal Weight Program



Financial disclosure: I will receive a portion of the revenue from the sale of the Ideal Weight Program.  I do not receive revenue from the sale of other products associated with Dan's Plan or the Ideal Weight Program (such as the Fitbit, cooking tools, and other programs).

New Strain of Norovirus - the Winter Vomiting Bug - On the Rise

Although the flu is on everyone’s minds this season, the winter vomiting bug, or the norovirus, is making its rounds.

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that the norovirus causes about 70,000 hospitalizations and 800 deaths each year, mostly in young children and the elderly.

Some of the virus' common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and stomach pains. The CDC points out that the norovirus is often referred to as the stomach flu, but it is unrelated to influenza.

So far, there have not been any reports of the norovirus in Reading or North Reading, according to the Health Departments in both towns. 

A new norovirus strain, GII.4 Sydney, was detected last year in Australia.  The strain hit the U.K. and sickened over a million people. It has now reached the United States and this new strain appears to be taking over.

Of norovirus cases reported from September to December, 54 percent have been identified as GII.4 Sydney, according to recently released data.

The first norovirus outbreak was reported in Ohio in 1968. Today, approximately 21 million illnesses are attributable to norovirus in the U.S. each year, reports the CDC. Of those, approximately 25 percent can be attributed to foodborne transmissions. The norovirus can also spread quickly in closed places like daycare centers, nursing homes, schools, and cruise ships.

This hardy virus is extremely contagious. The BBC reports that norovirus is one of the few infections you can catch from a toilet seat. The virus can survive temperatures as high as 140°F, which makes eating raw fish, such as oysters, particularly dangerous.

Noroviruses can live in vomit or stool even before a person experiences symptoms, and up to two weeks after symptoms disappear.  People are most contagious when they experience symptoms and during the first three days after recovery, reports the CDC. 

There is no treatment or vaccine against norovirus. To help prevent contamination, the CDC recommends the following tips:


5 Tips to Prevent Norovirus From Spreading

1. Practice proper hand hygiene

Always wash your hands carefully with soap and water:

    after using the toilet and changing diapers, and
    before eating, preparing, or handling food.
    Alcohol-based hand sanitizers can be used in addition to hand washing. But, they should not be used as a substitute for washing with soap and water.


2. Wash fruits and vegetables and cook seafood thoroughly

    Carefully wash fruits and vegetables before preparing and eating them.
    Cook oysters and other shellfish thoroughly before eating them.
    Be aware that noroviruses are relatively resistant. They can survive temperatures as high as 140°F and quick steaming processes that are often used for cooking shellfish. Food that might be contaminated with norovirus should be thrown out.
    Keep sick infants and children out of areas where food is being handled and prepared.

3. When you are sick, do not prepare food or care for others

    You should not prepare food for others or provide healthcare while you are sick and for at least 2 to 3 days after you recover.
    This also applies to sick workers in schools, daycares, and other places where they may expose people to norovirus.

4. Clean and disinfect contaminated surfaces

    After throwing up or having diarrhea, immediately clean and disinfect contaminated surfaces.
    Use a chlorine bleach solution with a concentration of 1000–5000 ppm (5–25 tablespoons of household bleach [5.25%] per gallon of water) or other disinfectant registered as effective against norovirus by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

5. Wash laundry thoroughly

Immediately remove and wash clothes or linens that may be contaminated with
vomit or stool (feces).

You should—

    handle soiled items carefully without agitating them,
    wear rubber or disposable gloves while handling soiled items and wash your hands after,
    and wash the items with detergent


*According to the Reading Health Department, if you think you have this virus you should stay home. If you are caring for someone with this virus, wash the bathroom regularly.

Flu weather drain blood donation supplies

As flu and frigid weather force many people across the nation to stay bundled up inside, blood banks are reporting donors are canceling appointments and supplies are dropping.

"The American Red Cross is seeing a lower-than-expected turnout,'' says Stephanie Millian, director of biomedical communications at the American Red Cross. "We've even had seven blood drives canceled because of the weather in the Great Lakes area. Flu season is hitting us in other parts of the country. "

While none of the agencies responsible for collecting blood is reporting a shortage, they are experiencing low levels in several types of blood and are encouraging people to give blood if they're healthy.

About 1 in 7 people entering a hospital will require blood transfusions, according to America's Blood Centers. Blood is used to treat accident victims, cancer patients, hemophiliacs and surgery patients.

The greatest need is for O-negative blood, a type often called for in emergencies because it's a type any patient can use, says Millian. Only 7% of people are O-negative.

"We like to keep a five- to seven-day supply of all blood types on hand, and we're under a three-day supply now,'' says Jim Fox, director of communications at the New York Blood Center. Bone-chilling temperatures in New York fell into the teens this week, with wind chills below zero.

"When it's as cold outside as it's been here, most people like to stay indoors,'' Fox says. "But people with leukemia and other cancers don't have that option. They need blood transfusions. When we get weather like we've been having, we start to worry about supplies."

Mother Nature might help out soon. A warming trend is expected next week across parts of the nation. The flu is reported in all 50 states but is leveling off in many, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported Friday. However some parts of the country, especially the Southwest and Northwest, are showing increases.

In Arizona, parts of Texas and in the Northwest, where United Blood Services serves hospitals, it is seeing a drop in donations and a rise in demand.

"We're struggling to fill blood orders for 145 hospitals in the Arizona area,'' says Sue Thew, spokeswoman for United Blood Services in Arizona.

Demand is above normal, Thew said, because hospitals delay many elective surgeries until after the holiday season.

"Hopefully, we can get everyone feeling better soon and back to giving blood,'' says Ashley Messick, communications specialist for United Blood Services. "It's not only people with the flu who are staying away but also their caregivers. We need to restock levels. We're meeting needs now by shifting blood around to areas where it's needed."

If you've had the flu, wait until you no longer have symptoms and are feeling well before you donate, according to the American Red Cross. Go online to make an appointment to donate:

15 health tips you can implement today

The first is to brush your teeth daily. Gum disease not only can cause you to lose your teeth, it can make you have heart problems. Consider this: scientists have confirmed that gum disease likely causes destructive bacteria to flood the blood system. Limit this problem by brushing your teeth often.

Another tip to use today is to cut back on processed sugar. That means most all soft drinks. They are loaded with it. Why cut back on this ingredient ? Large levels of sugar causes quick and damaging levels of insulin to be released into the blood. Your pancreas makes the insulin. If it has to work overtime and you already have a terrible diet your pancrease can become exhausted. When your pancreas becomes exhausted and can not make enough insulin to counteract the level of sugar in your blood, diabetes can result. Stop the abnormal intake of processed sugar and the chances of this will decrease. You can help prevent diabetes in your body by decreasing the amount of processed sugar going into your mouth.

The third tip is to start an exercise routine today. Modern medicine finally found out recently that exercising helps prevent cancer. It also increases your life span. If that is not reason enough, stop reading right here. Just thirty minutes a day of strenous exercise makes a load of difference if your life is an inactive one. Try it.

Listen to people who are not totally obese. It is a fine line, but those who live longer are not of “normal weight” according to Psychology Today. Those who are slightly overweight are more likely to live the longest. This study was done on Canadian people. Their climate is a cold one and likely had something to do with the results. Nevertheless, it is something to think about.

Eat chocolate. I think I heard you say: “Wow !” ? This statement needs some qualification. It is not just any chocolate. Real dark chocolate is high in antioxidants that reduce the effects of free radicals in the body. If you were thinking that you could eat a milky way and have better health, it is just not that way. It must be dark chocolate and have very little sweeteners.

Here is a twin to along with that last tip; consume less artificial sweeteners. There are many that are just plain bad for you. The sweetener called aspartame or nutrasweet is not an ingredient to put into your body. Your body changes the aspartame into formic acid. Guess what else uses formic acid ? Fire ants use this when they bite you. They inject you with this ingredient, which is what they use for poison. It is the reason “fire ants” have “fire”. Why put the poison of fire ants in your body ? You are doing that when you eat aspartame.

Stop smoking cigarettes. While you are at it, include cigars and marijuana with that. You already know why. It can help cause cancer and it also causes others who are breathing in the second-hand smoke to develop cancer. Just stop smoking.

Stop over-indulging in alcohol. This substance is the reason why many have problems with their liver and other areas. Alcohol is acidic and if you are overweight, this can easily cause an acidic atmosphere in your body. This type of atmosphere is the same one that cancer thrives in. Wine taken in modest amounts, about one small glass a day, by contrast, is good for you. Liquors and other strong drinks are not good for much, except for perhaps cleaning your house.

Get at least one hour a day out in the sun. Centenarians ( those who live to be at least one hundred years old ) have a few things in common. Working out in the sun is one of those things. If you work indoors and do not see much sun, change this aspect of your life.

Taking a que from those centenarians, another tip is to start enjoying life. If you want a good health tip this is an important one. One of the common denominators of those who live to age one hundred and beyond is that they are not grumpy. Changing your attitude for the better is good for you.

Eat more fresh fruit and vegetables. This may seem like an impossible task. Most fruit and vegetables in the hands of the Western world come from other countries, and it is not that fresh. This tip is taken again from those centenarians. Many of them eat fruit from a plant grown in their own yard. This is a true “victory garden” for health.

Learn to keep your PH level balanced. The PH level is basic to all health. Cancer likes to have a low PH level to live in. Do you have one ? Learn to use PH paper to check out your own PH level and you will know more about basic health than most people.

Get rid of the blind faith you have in the medical industry. They just are not worthy of it. Read more online. This is something you are doing now, and it such an important health tip I will say it twice; stop thinking that the medical industry has all the answers. They clearly do not. This change in thinking will benefit you greatly, so start today.

Tags easy healthy tricks, health tips,

Food Reward Friday

This week's "winner"... the KFC Double Down sandwich!

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Comment Published in Nature

I recently read an opinion piece by Gary Taubes in the scientific journal Nature, titled "Treat Obesity as Physiology, not Physics", in which he promoted NuSI and repeated the statement that obesity research is a "house of cards" because it focuses on calories in/out, at the expense of studying the "hormonal regulatory disorders" underlying obesity (1).  I wrote a letter to the editor in response to Taubes's commentary, which has been published in Nature (2).

I'm used to seeing these kinds of claims in the popular press at this point, but to see it published in a scientific journal is galling (even if it's in the opinion section).  This is the equivalent of a person who has never held an ax telling a group of lumberjacks they need to focus on cutting trees.  It's part of a disturbing trend of popular writers in the low-carb and Paleo world attacking researchers, and even entire fields of research, they have little understanding of.  Of course this only applies to a minority of the community, but this argumentation style smells of desperation and reflects poorly on the community as a whole.

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